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Latest Class 12th Political Science NCERT Notes, NCERT Question Solutions and Extra Q & A
Contemporary World Politics
1. The End Of Bipolarity
This chapter discusses the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the bipolar world order dominated by the US and USSR. It focuses on the disintegration of the **Soviet Union** and the end of the Warsaw Pact, marking the demise of communism as a major global force. The chapter explores the rise of the **United States** as the sole superpower (unipolar world) and the implications of this shift for international relations. It also touches upon the emergence of new countries from the former Soviet bloc and the challenges faced by them, setting the stage for contemporary global politics.
2. Contemporary Centres Of Power
This chapter examines the emergence of alternative **centres of power** in the contemporary world, challenging the dominance of the United States after the Cold War. It discusses the rise of regional organizations and countries as significant players in global politics. Examples like the **European Union (EU)**, the **Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)**, and the growing economic and political influence of countries like **China** and **India** are explored. These developments indicate a potential shift towards a multipolar world, where power is distributed among multiple actors, shaping the future global landscape.
3. Contemporary South Asia
This chapter focuses on the political dynamics and inter-state relations in **South Asia**, a region comprising countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. It discusses the diverse political systems (democracy, military rule) and internal challenges within these countries. The chapter explores the complex relationships between South Asian nations, including conflicts (e.g., India-Pakistan tensions) and cooperation efforts (e.g., **SAARC**). It highlights the role of India as the largest country in the region and the challenges and prospects for peace and stability in South Asia.
4. International Organisations
This chapter discusses the role and importance of **international organisations** in contemporary world politics. It explains how these organizations (**like the United Nations**) are formed by states to address global issues (peace, security, development, human rights) through cooperation and multilateralism. The structure and functions of the UN and its various agencies are examined. Debates around the reform of international organizations to make them more democratic, representative, and effective in addressing global challenges are also explored, highlighting their significance in managing international relations and collective action.
5. Security In The Contemporary World
This chapter explores the concept of **security** in the contemporary world, expanding beyond traditional military threats. It discusses different dimensions of security, including military security, human security, and global security. Traditional security concerns focus on state security from external aggression. Non-traditional security threats, such as terrorism, poverty, health epidemics, climate change, and migration, are highlighted as challenges affecting individuals and states. The chapter discusses different approaches to security, emphasizing the need for comprehensive strategies to address the complex range of threats faced by states and people today.
6. Environment And Natural Resources
This chapter addresses the growing importance of **environmental concerns** and the management of **natural resources** in contemporary world politics. It discusses global environmental issues like climate change, biodiversity loss, and resource depletion, which transcend national borders. The chapter explores the politics surrounding environmental issues, including debates between developed and developing countries on responsibilities and burdens. It highlights the role of international cooperation, environmental movements, and sustainable development initiatives in addressing these challenges, recognizing that environmental sustainability is crucial for global peace and security, impacting countries like India significantly.
7. Globalisation
This chapter discusses **globalisation**, the increasing interconnectedness of the world through flows of capital, commodities, technology, people, and ideas. It explores the economic, political, and cultural dimensions of globalisation and its potential consequences. The chapter examines the debate around globalisation, including its perceived benefits (economic growth, cultural exchange) and drawbacks (increased inequality, cultural homogenisation). It highlights how globalisation affects different countries and social groups differently, and discusses resistance to globalisation. Understanding this complex phenomenon is crucial for analyzing contemporary global politics and its impact on countries like India.
Politics In India Since Independence
1. Challenges Of Nation Building
This chapter explores the formidable **challenges** faced by **India** immediately after gaining **independence** in 1947. It discusses the difficult task of nation-building in a vast and diverse country, including the issues arising from **Partition** (mass displacement, violence) and the integration of **Princely States** (e.g., Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir, Manipur) into the Indian Union. The chapter highlights the efforts made by leaders like Sardar Patel in achieving political unity and the subsequent challenge of reorganizing states on linguistic lines, showcasing the initial hurdles in establishing a cohesive nation-state in India.
2. Era Of One-Party Dominance
This chapter examines the period after Indian independence (1947-1967) characterized by the **dominance of the Indian National Congress** party in national and state politics. It discusses the reasons for Congress's dominance, including its legacy from the freedom struggle, strong leadership (e.g., Jawaharlal Nehru), and nationwide organization. The chapter explores the nature of this dominance, comparing it with one-party rule in other countries, and highlights the role of opposition parties despite their limited electoral success. Understanding this era is crucial for analyzing the evolution of India's multi-party democratic system.
3. Politics Of Planned Development
This chapter discusses **India's early development strategy** based on **planning**. It explains the rationale behind adopting planned development after independence to address poverty and achieve economic growth. The role of the **Planning Commission** and the objectives of the initial **Five-Year Plans** (e.g., focus on agriculture, industry) are explored. The chapter discusses the debate between different models of development (capitalism vs. socialism) and India's choice of a **mixed economy**. It highlights major outcomes of planned development like the Green Revolution, but also challenges faced, such as regional disparities and bureaucratic hurdles.
4. India’s External Relations
This chapter explores **India's foreign policy** and its engagement with the world since independence. It discusses the principles guiding India's external relations, such as **Non-Alignment** during the Cold War (India not joining either bloc), peaceful coexistence, and anti-colonialism. The chapter examines India's relations with major powers (USA, USSR/Russia, China), neighbouring countries (Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka), and its role in international organizations (like the UN). It highlights key events and policies that have shaped India's position in global affairs, including its role in the Non-Aligned Movement.
5. Challenges To And Restoration Of The Congress System
This chapter discusses the period when the dominant position of the **Congress party** in Indian politics faced significant **challenges**. It explores the reasons for the decline in Congress's electoral fortunes after Nehru's era, including internal rifts, opposition unity, and changing social dynamics. The chapter examines events like the 1967 general election, which saw reduced Congress majority. It also discusses the efforts led by Indira Gandhi to restore the dominance of the Congress system, highlighting the political strategies and changes within the party that marked this period of political flux in India.
6. The Crisis Of Democratic Order
This chapter examines a period of significant political turmoil in India during the 1970s, often referred to as the **Crisis of Democratic Order**. It discusses the background to the declaration of the **Emergency** in 1975, including political agitations (e.g., JP Movement) and conflicts between the government and the judiciary. The chapter explores the events and consequences of the Emergency, including the suspension of fundamental rights and political repression. It highlights the restoration of democratic processes after the Emergency and the subsequent political developments, providing insight into the resilience and challenges faced by Indian democracy.
7. Regional Aspirations
This chapter explores the emergence and significance of **regional aspirations** and movements within the Indian federal structure since independence. It discusses how diverse regional identities, languages, cultures, and demands for autonomy have influenced Indian politics. Examples of regional movements seeking statehood, greater autonomy, or recognition of cultural identity in different parts of India (e.g., Punjab, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, Tamil Nadu) are discussed. The chapter highlights how the Indian political system has responded to these aspirations, balancing regional demands with the need for national unity and integration within a federal framework.
8. Recent Developments In Indian Politics
This chapter discusses the significant political developments in India from the late 1980s onwards. It explores the decline of the Congress system and the rise of **coalition politics** at the national level, marking a shift towards multi-party competition. The chapter discusses the emergence of new political forces, the Mandal issue (reservations for OBCs), and the rise of Hindutva politics. Economic reforms (liberalisation, privatisation, globalisation) introduced in the 1990s and their political implications are also covered, highlighting the changing political landscape and key trends shaping contemporary Indian politics.